Hydrogels for soft-tissue phantoms: From Sol-Gel Methods to Hybrid Frontiers in 3D Printing and Electrospinning
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.37636/recit.v9n3e470Keywords:
Hydrogels, Tissues Phantoms, Sol-gel, 3D printing, Electrospinning, Tissue engineering, Biomimetic materialsAbstract
Recent advances in hydrogel preparation have driven the design of biomedical phantoms capable of simulating soft tissues and facilitating the study of biological properties, particularly apparent and effective density. These advances enable the calibration of imaging equipment, the validation of medical devices, and the training of clinical personnel. This scoping review, based on a systematic analysis of the literature published between 2020 and 2026 in Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar, identifies and compares three phantom fabrication methods widely used due to their operational versatility: chemical crosslinking methods based on sol-gel processes, 3D printing techniques, and electrospinning processes. Each method has specific advantages. Chemical methods stand out for their simplicity and stability; 3D printing provides geometric control and reproducibility, enabling the creation of complex architectures that directly influence volumetric density; while electrospinning allows the creation of fibrous micro- and nanostructures that mimic the extracellular matrix, offering precise density control through fiber diameter, orientation, and void fraction. Current evidence suggests that hybrid approaches combining 3D printing and electrospinning constitute a promising technological frontier, as they overcome the limitations of each individual technique and allow the fabrication of phantoms that integrate macroscopic anatomical fidelity with nanoscale structural mimicry. Hydrogels constitute the most widely used material in phantom fabrication due to their reproducibility, simplicity, and ability to incorporate particles that enhance the simulation of biological tissues. Natural polymers such as chitosan, alginate, and polyvinyl alcohol allow density adjustment through polymer concentration, degree of crosslinking, and the incorporation of filler agents. Density measurement in hydrogels is essential to evaluate their interaction with biological fluids and optimize their performance in applications such as cell therapy. The materials used, tunable properties, characterization methods, and clinical applications of these systems are examined. Noninvasive techniques such as electrical bioimpedance, ultrasound tomography, and laser induced ultrasound employ hydrogels to calibrate tissue densities, thereby improving image quality and expanding their clinical applications. Together, these advances consolidate hydrogels as key tools for the development of more realistic biomedical phantoms and for their future clinical application. As its main contribution, the work proposes a comparative framework that guides the selection of technology according to the biomedical application, highlighting the convergence of 3D printing and electrospinning as a promising hybrid approach. Additionally, the main challenges in terms of standardization, multiscale resolution, and multifunctionality are identified, and future perspectives are outlined for the development of smart materials and hybrid manufacturing strategies.
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