Review of non-destructive methods for the evaluation of resistance spot welding in the automotive industry

Authors

  • Jazmin Monserrat Rodriguez Torres Posgrado CIATEQ, A.C., Centro de Tecnología Avanzada, Cto. Aguascalientes Nte. 135, Parque industrial de Valle de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, 20358, Aguascalientes, México. https://orcid.org/0009-0009-5442-1250
  • Carolina Reta CONAHCYT–CIATEQ A.C., Centro de Tecnología Avanzada, Gaza 30 Lote 1, Distrito de Educación, Salud, Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, San Agustín Tlaxiaca, 42163, Hidalgo, México. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0843-129X
  • Francisco Javier Ibarra Villegas CIATEQ, A.C. Centro de Tecnología Avanzada, Av. Nodo Servidor Público #165 Col. Anexa al Club de Golf, Las Lomas, Zapopan, 45136, Jalisco, México. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5064-8660

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.37636/recit.v7n3e353

Keywords:

Welding quality, Spot welding resistance, Non-destructive testing, Infrared inspection, Computer vision.

Abstract

Resistance spot welding is a common technique in the manufacturing industry, especially in the automotive sector in Mexico, due to its versatility and ease of implementation. The evaluation of the quality of these welds is crucial, and there are multiple methods for this, making the choice of the most suitable one complicated. This article presents a literature review focused on non-destructive methods for confirming the quality of resistance spot welding. Techniques such as ultrasonic inspection, infrared thermography, and computer vision, among others, are highlighted. The methodology employed includes a comparative analysis of recent studies to identify the best practices and applications in the quality assessment of spot welding. The results of this review provide a comprehensive guide for researchers and professionals, facilitating the selection of appropriate methods for specific applications.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Metrics

Metrics Loading ...

References

M. Hamedi y A. M, «A review of electrical contact resistance modeling in resistance,» Weld World, vol. 61, nº 1, pp. 269-290, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-016-0419-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-016-0419-4

A. W. Society, Manual para la certificación de inspectores de soldaduras, Florida: American Welding Society, 2013. [En línea] https://app.aws.org/certification/docs/QC1-2007-Spanish.pdf [Consultado: 19 Jul 2024]

F. J. Bueche y E. Hecht, Física general Shaum, Distrito Federal: Mc Graw Hill, 2007.

A. G. C. O'Brien, Welding Handbook, Florida: American Welding Society, 2007. [En línea] https://pubs.aws.org/Download_PDFS/WHB-1.9PV.pdf [Consultado: 19 Jul 2024]

H. Zhang y J. Senkara, Resistance Welding: Fundamentals and applications, Florida: CRC Press by Taylor&Francis Group, 2011. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/b11752

M. Pouranvari y S. P. H. Marashi, «Critical review of automotive steels spot welding: process, structure and properties,» Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, vol. 18, nº 5, pp. 361-403, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1179/1362171813Y.0000000120 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/1362171813Y.0000000120

M. Jou, «Real time monitoring weld quality of resistance spot welding for the fabrication of sheet metal assemblies,» Journal of Materials Processing Technology, vol. 132, nº 1-3, pp. 102-113, 2003. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136(02)00409-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136(02)00409-0

Nissan, Weld Master Trainer, Aguascalientes: Interno, 2016.

K. Zhao y P. Yao, «Overview of recent advances of process analysis and quality control in resistance spot welding,» Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, vol. 124, nº 1, pp. 170-198, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2019.01.041 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2019.01.041

Nissan, Inspección y control de calidad, en la aplicación de soldadura de elementos estructurales., Aguascalientes: Interno, 2009.

J. L. Calderón Cáceres y G. C. Scarpati Gálvez, «Los ensayos no destructivos (END) y su aplicación en la industria,» Campus, vol. 25, nº 10, pp. 59-66, 2018. https://doi.org/10.24265/campus.2018.v23n25.05 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24265/campus.2018.v23n25.05

R. Ospina Lopez, C. Hernando Trujillo y H. Parra L, «Aplicación y selección de ensayos no destructivos para la evaluación de uniones.,» Scientia et Technica, vol. 2, nº 4, pp. 196-201, 2011. [En línea] https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/849/84922622035.pdf [Consultado: 19 Jul 2024]

Nissan, Weld master trainer, Aguascalientes: Interno, 2016.

D. Ulbrich, Z. Struminski y J. Kowalcyk, «Evaluation of spot welding joints by ultrasonic method,» Welding Technology Review, vol. 90, pp. 22-24, 2018. https://doi.org/10.26628/wtr.v90i12.985 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26628/wtr.v90i12.985

S. R. Rincon Urbina, D. A. Calvo Cobos y E. J. Estrada Villa, «Técnica de partículas magnéticas: caso del laboratorio del CAMAN,» Ciencia y poder aéreo, vol. 10, nº 1, pp. 59-70, 2015. [En línea] https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=673571173007 [Consultado: 19 Jul 2024] DOI: https://doi.org/10.18667/cienciaypoderaereo.435

L. Janousek, K. Capova, N. Yusa y K. Miya, «Multiprobe Inspection for Enhancing Sizing Ability in Eddy Current Nondestructive Testing,» IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 44, nº 6, pp. 1618-1621, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1109/TMAG.2008.916547 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/TMAG.2008.916547

N. Yusa, E. Machida, L. Janousek, Rebican, Mihai, Z. Chen y K. Miya, «Application of eddy current inversion technique to the sizing of defects in Inconel welds with rough surfaces,» Nuclear engineering and design, vol. 235, nº 14, pp. 1469-1480, 2005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2005.01.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2005.01.005

E. Pérez-Zapico, A. Duffus.Scott, C. René-Gómez-Pérez y F. Santo-Castillo, «Observación y cuantificación de defectos en soldaduras a través del procesamiento digital de imágenes termográficas.,» Ingeniería Mecánica, vol. 16, nº 3, pp. 246-256, 2013. [En línea] https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/2251/225129326009.pdf [Consultado: 19 Jul 2024]

S. Keshav y R. David, «How to Read a Paper,» Cheriton School of Computer Science, pp. 1-2, 2016. [En línea] https://web.stanford.edu/class/cs114/reading-keshav.pdf [Consultado: 19 Jul 2024]

M. J Page et al., «The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews.,» BMJ, vol. 71, pp. 372-383, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71

Ó. Martín, M. López y F. Martín, «Artificial neural networks for quality control by ultrasonic testing in resistance spot welding,» Materials processing technology, vol. 183, nº 2-3, pp. 226-233, 2007. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2006.10.011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2006.10.011

Ó. Martín, M. S. I. Pereda y J. M. Galán, «Assessment of resistance spot welding quality based on ultrasonic testing and tree-based techniques,» Materials processing technology, vol. 214, nº 11, pp. 2478-2487, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.05.021 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.05.021

J. Liu, G. Xu, L. Ren, Z. Qian y L. Ren, «Defect intelligent identification in resistance spot welding ultrasonic detection based on wavelet packet and neural network,» The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 90, nº 5-8, pp. 2581-2588, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-016-9588-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-016-9588-y

L. Hua, B. Wang, X. Wang, X. He y S. Guan, «In-situ ultrasonic detection of resistance spot welding quality using embedded probe,» Materials processing technology, vol. 267, pp. 205-2014, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.12.008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.12.008

N. Amiri, G. Farrahi, K. Reza Kashyzadeh y M. Chizari, «Applications of ultrasonic testing and machine learning methods to predict the static & fatigue behavior of spot-welded joints,» Manufacturing processes, vol. 52, pp. 26-34, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.01.047 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.01.047

C. Ji, J. K. Na, Y.-S. Lee, Y.-D. Park y M. Kimchi, «Robot-assisted non-destructive testing of automotive resistance spot welds,» Welding in the World, vol. 65, nº 1, pp. 119-126, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-020-01002-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-020-01002-1

D. Ulbrich y M. Kanczurzewska, «Correlation Tests of Ultrasonic Wave and Mechanical Parameters of Spot-Welded Joints,» Materials, vol. 15, nº 5, pp. 1-21, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051701 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051701

D. Ulbrich, G. Psuj, A. Wypych, Bartkowski, A. Bartkowska, A. Stachowiak y J. Kowalczyk, «Inspection of Spot Welded Joints with the Use of the Ultrasonic Surface Wave,» Materials, vol. 16, nº 21, pp. 1-16, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16217029 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16217029

K. Tsukada, M. Yoshioka, T. Kiwa y Y. Hirano, «A magnetic flux leakage method using a magnetoresistive sensor for nondestructive evaluation of spot welds,» NDT & E International, vol. 44, nº 1, pp. 101-105, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2010.09.012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2010.09.012

K. Tsukada, K. Miyake, D. Harada, K. Sakai y T. Kiwa, «Magnetic Nondestructive Test for Resistance Spot Welds Using Magnetic Flux Penetration and Eddy Current Methods,» Nondestructive evaluation, vol. 32, pp. 286-293, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10921-013-0181-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10921-013-0181-0

G. Vértesy y I. Tomás, «Nondestructive magnetic inspection of spot welding,» NDT & E International, vol. 98, pp. 95-100, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2018.05.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2018.05.001

N. Ma, X. Gao, M. Tian, C. Wang, Y. Zhang y P. P.Gao, «Magneto-Optical Imaging of Arbitrarily Distributed Defects in Welds under Combined Magnetic Field,» Metals, vol. 12, nº 6, pp. 1-14, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12061055 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/met12061055

J. Ruisz, J. Biber y M. Loipetsberger, «Quality evaluation in resistance spot welding by analysing the weld fingerprint on metal bands by computer vision,» The international journal of advanced manufacturing tehcnology, vol. 33, nº 5-6, pp. 952-960, 2007. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-006-0522-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-006-0522-6

H. Zhang, F. Wang, T. Xi, J. Zhao, L. Wang y W. Gao, «A novel quality evaluation method for resistance spot welding based on the electrode displacement signal and the Chernoff faces technique,» Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, Vol. 62, pp. 431-443, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2015.03.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2015.03.007

C. Deniz y M. Cakir, «In-line stereo-camera assisted robotic spot welding quality control system,» Industrial Robot, vol. 45, nº 1, pp. 54-63, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1108/IR-06-2017-0117 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IR-06-2017-0117

Y.-J. Xia, Z.-W. Su, Y.-B. Li, L. Zhou y Y. Shen, «Online quantitative evaluation of expulsion in resistance spot welding,» Manufacturing processes, vol. 46, pp. 34-43, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.08.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.08.004

W. Dai, D. Li, D. Tang, Q. Jiang, D. Wang, H. Wang y Y. Peng, «Deep learning assisted vision inspection of resistance spot welds,» Manufacturing processes, vol. 62, pp. 262-274, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.12.015 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.12.015

E. Alghannam, H. Lu, M. Ma, Q. Cheng, A. A. Gonzalez, Y. Zang y S. Li, «A Novel Method of Using Vision System and Fuzzy Logic for Quality Estimation of Resistance Spot Welding,» Symmetry, vol. 11, nº 8, pp. 1-20, 2019. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym11080990 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/sym11080990

Y. Li, G. Tang, Y. Ma, S. Liu y T. Ren, «An electrode misalignment inspection system based on image processing technology for use in resistance spot welding,» Measurement Science and Technology, vol. 30, nº 7, pp. 1-8, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6501/ab1245 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6501/ab1245

T. Zheng, Y. Yang, P. Zheng, L. Benz y L. Wang, «An Appearance Inspection Method for Resistance Spot Welding Based on Semantic Segmentation,» IOP Conference Series:Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 790, pp. 27-29, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/790/1/012088 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/790/1/012088

T. Cannabrava, U. Ibusuki y E. G. Del Conte, «Development of a digital twin for spot welding quality inspection in an industry 4.0 testbed of a Brazilian University,» SSRN, pp. 1-6, 2022. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4075189 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4075189

L. Forejtová, T. Zavadil, L. Kolařík, M. Kolaríková, J. Sova y P. Vávra, «Non-Destructive inspection by infrared thermography of resistance spot welds used un automotive industry,» Acta Polytechnica, vol. 59, nº 3, pp. 238-247, 2019. https://doi.org/10.14311/AP.2019.59.0238 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14311/AP.2019.59.0238

L. Santoro, V. Razza y M. De Maddis, «Frequency-based analysis of active laser thermography for spot weld quality assessment,» Advanced Manufacturing Technolofy, vol. 130, pp. 3017-3029, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-12845-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-12845-5

M. Pereda, J. Santos, Ó. Martín y J. Galán, «Direct quality prediction in resistance spot welding process: Sensitivity, specificity and predictive accuracy comparative analysis,» Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, vol. 20, nº 8, pp. 679-685, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1179/1362171815Y.0000000052 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/1362171815Y.0000000052

H. Pashazadeh, Y. Gheisari y M. Hamedi, «Statistical modeling and optimization of resistance spot welding process parameters using neural networks and multi-objective genetic algorithm,» Intelligent Manufacturing, vol. 27, nº 2, pp. 549-559, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10845-014-0891-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10845-014-0891-x

I. Boersch, U. Füssel, C. Gresch, C. Großmann y B. Hoffmann, «Data mining in resistance spot welding,» Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 99, nº 9-12, pp. 1085-1099, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-016-9847-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-016-9847-y

B. Zhou, T. Pychynski, M. Reischl, E. Kharlamov y R. Mikut, «Machine learning with domain knowledge for predictive quality monitoring in resistance spot welding,» Intelligent Manufacturing, vol. 33, nº 2, pp. 1139-1163, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10845-021-01892-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10845-021-01892-y

J. Hu, J. Bi, H. Liu, Y. Li, S. Ao y Z. Luo, «Prediction of Resistance Spot Welding Quality Based on BPNN Optimized by Improved Sparrow Search Algorithm,» Materials, vol. 15, nº 20, pp. 1-14, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15207323 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15207323

J. Shao, S. Wang, B. Yang, Z. Zhang y Y. Wang, «A Hybrid Algorithm Based on GRNN and Grasshopper Optimization Algorithm for Welding Nugget Diameter Prediction,» Computing and information science in engineering, vol. 23, nº 3, pp. 1-10, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4054832 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4054832

K. Zhou y L. Cai, «Online nugget diameter control system for resistance spot welding,» Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 68, nº 1-4, pp. 2571-2588, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-013-4886-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-013-4886-0

H. Zhang, Y. Hou, J. Zhang, X. Qi y F. Wang, «A new method for nondestructive quality evaluation of the resistance spot welding based on the radar chart method and the decision tree classifier,» Advanced Manufactring Technology, vol. 78, nº 1-4, pp. 841-851, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-014-6654-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-014-6654-1

B. Xing, Y. Xiao, Q. H. Qin y H. Cui, «Quality assessment of resistance spot welding process based on dynamic resistance signal and random forest based,» Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 94, nº 1-4, pp. 327-339, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0889-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0889-6

W. Dai, D. Li, Y. Zheng, D. Wang, D. Tang, H. Wang y Y. Peng, «Online quality inspection of resistance spot welding for automotive production lines,» Journal of Manufacturing Systems, vol. 63, pp. 354-369, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmsy.2022.04.008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmsy.2022.04.008

J. Wen y H. Jia, «Real-time monitoring system for resistance spot welding quality,» Engineering Research Express, vol. 5, nº 1, pp. 1-9, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-8695/acb130 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-8695/acb130

Z. Xiaoyun, Z. Yansong y C. Guanlong, «Weld quality inspection based on on-line measured indentation from servo encoder in resistance spot welding,» de IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference Proceedings, Sorrento,Italy, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1109/IMTC.2006.328560 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/IMTC.2006.328560

D. Younes, E. Alghannam, Y. Tan y H. Lu, «Enhancement in Quality Estimation of Resistance Spot Welding Using Vision System and Fuzzy Support Vector Machine,» Symmetry, vol. 12, nº 8, pp. 1-19, 2020. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12081380 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12081380

B. Wang, «A study on spot welding quality judgment based on hidden Markov model,» Process Mechanical Engineering, vol. 235, nº 2, pp. 1-11, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954408920953952 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0954408920953952

Y. Liu, Y. Pan, H. Chen, W. Wang, T. An y X. Chen, «Research on quality inspection model of spot welding of equalthickness three-layer sheets based on ultrasonic A-scan,» Physics: Conference Series, vol. 2246, nº 012083, pp. 1-8, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2246/1/012083 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2246/1/012083

O. Martín, V. Ahedo, J. I. Santos y J. M. Galán, «Comparative Study of Classification Algorithms for Quality Assessment of Resistance Spot Welding Joints From Pre- and Post-Welding Inputs,» IEEE Access, vol. 10, pp. 6518-6527, 12 January 2022. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3142515 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3142515

V. H. Pham, H. T. Vo, D. D. Vu, J. Choi, S. Park, D. T. Nguyen, B.-I. Lee y J. Oh, «Development of Scanning Acoustic Microscopy System for Evaluating the Resistance Spot Welding Quality,» Research in Nondestructive Evaluation, vol. 33, nº 3, pp. 123-137, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/09349847.2022.2073415 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09349847.2022.2073415

M. Acebes, I. Gauna León, H. de Matías Jiménez, R. Delgado de Molina y A. Álvarez de Pablos, «Ultrasonic Spot Weld inspection system based on Industrial Robotic, Artificial Intelligence and Artificial Vision,» Nondestructuve Testing, vol. 28, nº 8, pp. 1-6, 2023. [En línea] https://www.tecnitestndt.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/ECNDT-23-Spot-Weld.pdf [Consultado: 19 Jul 2024] DOI: https://doi.org/10.58286/28177

Y. Zhou, C. Pan, J. Chen, Y. Gan y X. Gao, «Online evaluation method of resistance spot welding quality based on locally linear embedding algorithm,» Physics: Conference Series, vol. 2658, nº 012049, pp. 1-6, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2658/1/012049 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2658/1/012049

C. Summerville, D. Adams, P. Compston y D. Matthew, «Nugget diameter in resistance spot welding: a comparison between a dynamic resistance based approach and ultrasound C-scan,» Procedia Engineering, vol. 183, pp. 257-263, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.033

Types of non-destructive testing.

Published

2024-07-19

How to Cite

Rodriguez Torres, J. M., Reta, C., & Ibarra Villegas, F. J. (2024). Review of non-destructive methods for the evaluation of resistance spot welding in the automotive industry. REVISTA DE CIENCIAS TECNOLÓGICAS, 7(3), e353. https://doi.org/10.37636/recit.v7n3e353