Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT). Volumen 3 (1): 10-22
Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT). Universidad Autónoma de Baja California ISSN 2594-1925
Volumen 9 (3): e473. Julio-Septiembre, 2026. https://doi.org/10.37636/recit.v9n3e473
ISSN: 2594-1925
1
Review article
Photoacoustic techniques for non-destructive testing and
evaluation: a comprehensive review
Técnicas fotoacústicas para ensayos y evaluación no destructiva: una
revisión exhaustiva
José Mario Derramadero-Domínguez1, Lenin Francisco Escamilla-Herrera2, Orlando Miguel Medina-Cazares3
, Salvador Manuel Malagón-Soldara1, Gerardo Gutiérrez-Juárez2, Francisco Javier García-Rodríguez1
1Tecnológico Nacional de México / Instituto Tecnológico de Celaya. Av. Antonio García Cubas 600, Celaya, Guanajuato
38010, México.
2División de Ciencias e Ingeniería, Universidad de Guanajuato Campus León. A.P. E-143, León, Guanajuato CP 37150,
México.
3Tecnológico de Monterrey, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Blvd. Enrique Mazón López 965, 83000, Hermosillo, Sonora,
Mexico.
Autor de correspondencia: Francisco Javier García-Rodríguez, Tecnológico Nacional de México / Instituto Tecnológico de Celaya. Av.
Antonio García Cubas 600, Celaya, Guanajuato 38010, México. E-mail: francisco.garcia@itcelaya.edu.mx. ORCID: 0009-0003-1816-4070.
Received: April 15, 2026 Accepted: July 11, 2026 Published: August 26, 2026
Abstract. - Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) is critical for industrial safety, yet traditional methods face
limitations regarding coupling requirements and complex materials. This work presents a systematic
review of photoacoustic technology as an advanced alternative, combining optical penetration with
ultrasonic advantages to enable non-contact, high-resolution inspections. The study analyzes its
successful application across metals, batteries and semiconductors for multiscale defect detection. Results
confirm that photoacoustics is a consolidated tool that promises to evolve from simple defect detection to
predictive lifespan analysis in advanced manufacturing. This review was conducted through a structured
bibliographic search in Scopus, Web of Science, and IEEE Xplore, covering English-language
publications from 2020 onward, with selection criteria focused on photoacoustic techniques applied
specifically to engineering and industrial NDT/E, excluding biomedical in vivo studies.
Keywords: Photoacoustic; Internal defects; Non-destructive testing.
Resumen. - Las Pruebas No Destructivas (NDT) son fundamentales para la seguridad industrial, sin
embargo, los métodos tradicionales presentan limitaciones relacionadas con los requisitos de
acoplamiento y los materiales complejos. Este trabajo presenta una revisión sistemática de la tecnología
fotoacústica como una alternativa avanzada, que combina la penetración óptica con las ventajas
ultrasónicas para habilitar inspecciones sin contacto y de alta resolución. El estudio analiza su aplicación
exitosa en metales, baterías y semiconductores para la detección multiescala de defectos. Los resultados
confirman que la fotoacústica es una herramienta consolidada que promete evolucionar desde la simple
detección de defectos hacia el análisis predictivo de vida útil en la manufactura avanzada. El análisis se
realizó mediante una búsqueda bibliográfica estructurada en Scopus, Web of Science e IEEE Xplore,
considerando publicaciones en inglés desde 2020 hasta la fecha. Los criterios de selección se centraron
en técnicas fotoacústicas aplicadas específicamente a ensayos y evaluación no destructiva en contextos
industriales y de ingeniería, excluyendo estudios biomédicos in vivo.
Palabras clave: Fotoacústica; Defectos internos; Evaluación no destructiva.
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1. Introduction
Leading technology industries rigorously validate new components, but certain characterization methods,
such as those estimating Young's modulus or Vickers hardness, are inherently destructive and compromise
the integrity of the sample. In contexts where structural integrity is prioritized, such as detecting
manufacturing defects, assessing material fatigue, or monitoring motor shafts after operation, destructive
testing becomes prohibitive due to high costs or downtime. In response, Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
has been progressively implemented and employed across different industries. It encompasses a set of
fundamental techniques to ensure the safety, reliability, and operability of various components without
damage that alters their functionality.
Some examples of highly demanding technology industries include aerospace, civil infrastructure,
automotive, and power generation, where the early detection of structural defects (subsuperficial
imperfections, cracks, porosity, corrosion, or delamination) is not only a matter of quality control but a
critical measure to prevent catastrophic failures and to optimize preventive maintenance cycles.
Traditional NDT techniques have been effective for decades but exhibit limitations when facing the
challenges of modern manufacturing, including the need for couplants and physical contact, radiological
risks, and restrictions on conductive materials and surface defects [1- 4].
Currently, the most common techniques are electromagnetic methods, ultrasonic techniques, and liquid
penetrant testing. For example, for conductive metals, the eddy current non-destructive testing is
particularly useful because, unlike other electromagnetic methods, the material does not need to be
ferromagnetic and allows crack detection by monitoring the changes in the eddy currents. One advantage
is that it does not require direct contact between the sensor and the component under evaluation, but is
limited to superficial inspection [5,6]. Another type of NDT requires the use of chemical reagents or
specialized dyes, and while they are classified as non-destructive, these methods are considered invasive
since they involve the application of external substances to the material, a process that relies on the
capillarity phenomenon. On a clean and dry surface, the penetrant is applied by dipping, spraying, or
brushing, then after a certain dwell time (depending on the dye), the excess penetrant is removed, a
developer is applied, and surface cracks become visible to the inspector [7].
The conventional pulse-echo ultrasonic testing (UT) is generally applied using piezoelectric elements,
which act as both emitter and receiver. The emitter generates high-frequency sound waves, and then the
emitter becomes the receiver, detecting reflections that occur at interfaces, defects, or cracks within the
material, by analyzing the position of these reflections, the defect can be located. Unfortunately, this
method is limited to planar geometries, since accurate reflection analysis requires surfaces that are flat and
perpendicular to the incident ultrasonic waves, since complex or curved geometries distort the propagation
path, making defect localization unreliable [8,9]. Another example of NDT is radiographic testing (RT),
which uses ionizing electromagnetic radiation that passes through the inspection sample and impinges on
a sensitive medium, producing an image that reveals internal defects. However, the method has low
sensitivity to defects aligned with the radiation path, and its effectiveness also depends on the relative size
of the defect compared to the overall sample [10].
Chemical reagents, radiographic testing, or X-ray inspection may pose hazards to inspectors if the
techniques are not applied appropriately, therefore requiring specialized personnel, a challenge that is
further intensified by the incorporation of advanced materials, composites, and additive manufacturing
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processes, making new methods indispensable. In recent years, the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) has been working on developing and implementing composite structures and
addressing the respective certification challenges, with the aim of applying them in military and space
fields. NASA reports that traditional NDT methods designed for isotropic materials, such as metals, are
not always suitable for composite applications [11].
In recent decades, photoacoustic imaging (PAI) has emerged as a promising approach to overcome several
limitations of conventional NDT techniques. By combining optical excitation with ultrasonic wave
detection, PAI enables tunable resolution, subsurface sensitivity, and operation under different
experimental conditions. These features make photoacoustic-based methods attractive for the inspection
of complex industrial components, advanced materials, and manufacturing processes where contact,
coupling media, or ionizing radiation may be undesirable.
The photoacoustic (PA) effect was first discovered by Alexander Graham Bell in 1880 and can be broadly
described as the generation of acoustic waves following the absorption of modulated or pulsed
electromagnetic radiation by a material [12]. In modern implementations, laser sources are commonly
used to induce localized heating, which produces transient thermoelastic expansion and, consequently, the
generation of acoustic pressure waves in the frequency range of ultrasound. In solids, this process can
generate different wave modes, including longitudinal, transverse, Rayleigh, and Lamb waves, depending
on the optical excitation conditions, material properties, and sample geometry [13–15].
When pulsed lasers are employed to generate ultrasonic waves, the technique is commonly referred to as
laser-induced ultrasound (LIUS). In NDT/E applications, LIUS and laser ultrasonic testing (LUT) are
closely related but differ mainly in their detection strategy. In LIUS, acoustic signals are typically detected
using contact sensors, commonly piezoelectric transducers coupled to the sample, whereas LUT generally
relies on optical detection schemes such as interferometry or laser vibrometry. Therefore, LUT can operate
in a fully non-contact configuration, making it particularly attractive for industrial scenarios involving
rough surfaces, high temperatures, moving parts, or geometrically complex components [16,17].
The primary scientific objective of this comprehensive review is to critically evaluate and systematize
recent methodological advancements in photoacoustic techniques, strictly applied to Non-Destructive
Testing and Evaluation (NDT/E). To this end, this paper is organized into five sections, starting with the
introduction that presents a general overview of NDT techniques, subsequently, the background section
provides a formal (mathematical) framework of the PA effect. The next section presents the search
strategy and selection criteria then outlines the systematic approach adopted for the bibliographic search
and article selection. Subsequent sections present recent developments in PA technology-based NDT
applied to metallic materials and in certain cases, to specific industrial sectors; finally, the paper concludes
with a synthesis of the main findings and a discussion of future outlooks.
In contrast to many previous reviews that have primarily focused on biomedical photoacoustic imaging or
on general laser ultrasonic methods [16,17,19], this review addresses a more specific and less extensively
systematized domain: the use of photoacoustic-based techniques for non-destructive testing and evaluation
(NDT/E) of engineering materials and industrial structures. The analysis emphasizes recent applications
involving metallic structures, battery materials and systems, additive manufacturing components,
semiconductor materials, and other technologically relevant inspection scenarios. The main contribution
of this work lies in establishing a comparative framework for CW-modulated PA, pulsed PAI, PACT,
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PAM, and LUT, highlighting their operational trade-offs in terms of contact requirements, defect scale,
penetration depth, spatial resolution, signal acquisition strategy, and industrial scalability.
2. Background
Techniques based on the PA effect have already been described in the literature, and a physical model
based in two coupled differential equations is widely accepted to describe this phenomenon. Equation (1)
represents the heat diffusion equation for the temperature field T (r, t) which is coupled with the Equation
(2) for the acoustic pressure field, P (r, t) [18,19].
;
(1)
.
(2)
Where χ ≡ κ /ρ0CP is the thermal diffusivity, κ is the thermal conductivity, ρ0 and T0 are the unaltered
mass density and temperature, respectively, CP is the heat capacity at constant pressure, and β is the
thermal coefficient of volume expansion. This classic model is widely referenced in literature and regarded
as the cornerstone of the PA effect. To calculate the exact solutions to this system of differential equations,
the literature usually employs two approximations. The first one is the stress confinement (SC), which
occurs when the acoustic relaxation time defined as the time required by the sample to expand over the
illuminated region, is larger than the laser pulse duration. In this case, while laser illumination heats the
sample, the volumetric expansion of the sample is negligible. The second condition is thermal confinement
(TC) which implies that heat diffusion is negligible, meaning that the thermal relaxation time is much
longer than the laser pulse duration [20,21].
Before fully addressing the solution of the fundamental photoacoustic equations, an approximate image
can often be obtained directly from the experimental signals, providing a practical reconstruction without
initially relying on complex theoretical models. Figure 1 illustrates the different scanning modes
commonly employed in PAI. Figure 1(a) presents the experimental arrangement, which serves as the basis
for the subsequent acquisition schemes. The first mode is the Amplitude Scan (A-scan), which produces
a single signal from the sample, as shows Figure 1(b), allowing a rapid examination but provides limited
information typically just the time and amplitude of the signal. The next mode is the Brightness Scan (B-
scan) (Figure 1 (c)), which is a compilation of A-scans that yield a 2D image [22]. Based on B-scans,
different models can be used to reconstruct images from acoustic signals, the most common being Delay-
and-Sum (DAS) [23,24]. Finally, the Constant-Depth / Plan Scan (C-scan) (Figure 1 (d)), which is a
compilation of B-scans, enables a three-dimensional reconstruction of the sample, revealing the exact
position of any detected defect [22].
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Figure 1. Illustrative example of an ultrasound transducer experimental arrangement (a). Emulated signal obtained by an A-
scan (b). Emulated image formed by a B-scan (c). Typical image formed by a C-scan (d).
In general, techniques based on the photoacoustic (PA) effect can be broadly classified into two major
groups, modulated photoacoustic and pulsed photoacoustic (PPA). The modulated photoacoustic approach
is often described in literature as photoacoustic excitation using a continuous-wave (CW) laser [25], as
illustrated in Figure 2 (a). In this configuration, the most common experimental arrangement involves the
use of a mechanical chopper to modulate the CW laser and generate pulses [26], or alternatively, a function
generator may be employed. For the PPA there are lasers capable of producing ultrashort pulses, typically
in the nanosecond or even picosecond range. In both cases, the selection of parameters depends on the
specific application, typically varying the wavelength, modulation frequency, energy per pulse, and pulse
duration.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. (a)Continuous laser with a mechanical chopper. (b) Pulsed laser.
PPA techniques have gained increasing relevance in recent years not only in NDT applications, hence in
this work, some PPA methods are presented, modulated photoacoustic, principles of PAI, photoacoustic
tomography (PACT), photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) and laser ultrasonics (LUT). Photoacoustic
microscopy itself is subdivided into two approaches, optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-
PAM), where the resolution limit is determined by the optical focus, and acoustic-resolution photoacoustic
microscopy (AR-PAM), where the resolution limit is dictated by the focus of the ultrasound transducer.
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3. Search Strategy and Selection Criteria
To ensure a systematic and rigorous collection of the most recent literature, a structured search strategy
was implemented based on the five main thematic axes of this review. Bibliographic queries were
conducted between February 2 and March 21, 2026, using the Scopus, Web of Science, and IEEE Xplore
databases. In order to guarantee the currency of the state of the art, the publication window was strictly
limited to works published from 2020 onwards and only those written in English.
Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria used for bibliographic selection.
Criterion
Inclusion
Exclusion
Publication
period
Works published from 2020 onward
Works published before 2020, except
historical or contextual references
Language
English-language publications
Non-English publications
Application field
Engineering materials, industrial
structures, and NDT/E applications
Biomedical, clinical, or in vivo biological
tissue studies
Technique
PA, PAI, PACT, PAM, LIUS, and LUT
Non-photoacoustic or unrelated
optical/acoustic techniques
Contribution
type
Experimental, theoretical, numerical, or
methodological studies relevant to
NDT/E
Papers without direct relevance to NDT/E or
already extensively covered in previous
reviews
The search was carried out independently for each of the five central topics, with specific search equations
formulated through the use of Boolean operators and adapted keywords to capture the most representative
contributions in each technological area. Examples of these combinations include [LIU AND modulated
laser] and [photoacoustic AND continuous laser]. The initial selection process consisted of screening
articles by reading titles and abstracts, prioritizing original research that allowed for the comparison of
methodologies and results.
For four of the five thematic axes, the selection intentionally focused on works presenting both theoretical
developments and their corresponding experimental validation. For the fifth axis, the selection deliberately
emphasized studies with theoretical contributions and numerical simulations, aiming to deepen the
modeling foundations of the topic. To ensure the novelty of this review, primary articles already
thoroughly analyzed in existing review papers were excluded, thereby avoiding redundancy in the
literature.
Finally, a strict exclusion criterion was applied based on the definition of Non-Destructive Testing and
Evaluation (NDT/E). Since the scope of NDT/E is limited to the inspection of materials and structures in
engineering and industrial contexts, studies focused on biomedical, clinical, or in vivo biological tissue
applications were excluded. Medical literature was retained only for brief historical and conceptual
references when necessary to provide context.
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4. Applications
4.1 Modulated Photoacoustic based on CW laser.
With the advancement of semiconductor technology, continuous wave (CW) laser diodes have emerged
as a promising alternative, potentially capable of replacing the currently used pulsed lasers in the future.
This technology offers significant advantages, including lower cost, reduced size, and improved
portability compared with convencional Nd:YAG laser systems [27].
However, several challenges remain, for instance, the fluence of most commercial diodes is significantly
lower than pulsed lasers, and precise control is required to ensure uniformity in the generated pulses. Their
limited power directly impacts the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), since the diode emission is the single
source of the photoacoustic effect. A lower fluence reduces optical absorption, which is one of the
principal parameters determining the amplitude of the resulting signal. A second limiting factor is the
intrinsic sensitivity of the sensor, and finally, the separation distance between the optical source and the
sensor also plays a critical role [28].
To address the issue of low SNR when measuring at long distances from the source, Vangi et al. [29]
developed a new method to increase the signal amplitude based on constructive interference between
elastic waves. They first evaluated the signal at a considerable distance from the source and then, to
demonstrate the performance of this technique, applied it to the identification of an elliptical crack on a
rail. Figure 3 shows the considered experimental setup. Position 1 is located 0.1 m from the source,
whereas position 2 is 1.3 m from the source. The latter distance was used to demonstrate that constructive
interference could reach the sensor. The figure also shows the laser diode power, the use of an amplifier,
and the oscilloscope employed to collect the resulting data.
Figure 3. Experimental arrangement on a rail for constructive interference enhancement. Image taken from Vangi et al [29].
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To achieve constructive interference, the control of the laser diode was implemented through Transistor-
Transistor Logic (TTL), which allows modulation of the on time of the square input signal, as well as the
off time and the interval between repetitions. Moreover, achieving interference in the time domain has
shown that the number of pulses is related to modifications in the central frequency spectrum, particularly
when the pulse count is high, this finding provides the opportunity to design and optimize the experimental
arrangement for dedicated applications.
To validate the proposed methodology, a defect was intentionally fabricated between both positions,
measuring 12 mm in width and 2.5 mm in depth, both the sensor and the laser were displaced along the
x-direction of the rail, as shown in Figure 4(a). Figure 4(b) presents the resulting B-scan, where the crack
area is highlighted, beyond obtaining the crack width, since crack depth is a function of the x-coordinate,
the influence of different crack depths on the acquired signal can be evaluated. This variation clearly
modifies the amplitude of the acquired ultrasound, and the SNR can be analyzed to estimate the crack
depth by comparing it with the SNR of a sample without cracks. For a 1 mm deep defect, this relation
decreases by almost 2 dB, while for a 2.5 mm deep crack the relation drops to less than half of its initial
value.
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. (a)Definition of crack measurements. (b) B-scan obtained from the experiment as a function of time, distance and
amplitude. Image taken from Vangi et al [29].
4.2 Principles of Pulsed Photoacoustic Imaging (PAI)
Although methodologies that solve the photoacoustic equations (inverse problem) are essential for full
reconstruction, numerous studies demonstrate that high-resolution B-scan and C-scan images can be
obtained directly from experimental signals but remain a partial representation rather than a complete
reconstruction [30]. The B-scan method has been widely applied in the biomedical field due to its high
resolution in the morphological characterization of tissues in both animal and human studies [31]. More
recently, similar strategies have been extended to the area of non-destructive testing (NDT), particularly
in metals, where the technique enables high accuracy in experimental measurements.
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Figure 5. (a) Detailed schematic representation of the experimental configuration to determine the separation between two
slabs. (b) Isometric drawing showing actual cavity dimensions, numerated from left to right. (c) Cross-section of the slab with
the artificial cavities. (d) Picture of the slab with the artificial cavities. Image taken from Rojas et al [32].
Figure 5 shows the specimen used in an NDT study based on LIUS, which consisted of two aluminum
slabs joined together, designed to create rectangular cavities between the plates in order to emulate holes
or imperfections in a metallic material. In this study, Rojas et al. [32] propose an analysis of the
experimental signals (A-scan), based on the time-of-flight (TOF) method. From these A-scans,
information regarding the thickness of the sample can be obtained through the TOF, which corresponds
to the interval between the first pulse observed in the experimental data and the subsequent reflection. In
a homogeneous sample, the TOF remains constant; therefore, variations in TOF indicate the presence of
a discontinuity, such as a hole. The TOF is defined as , where and represent the thickness
and the sound speed of the sample, respectively.
The sample contained four cavities with different dimensions, and the authors focused their evaluation on
the third cavity. Both sides of the plate were examined independently through B-scan acquisition. To
compare the experimental results, the sample dimensions were measured using a vernier caliper, the cavity
dimensions were 12.6 mm × 90.0 mm × 37.0 mm, as shown in Figure 5. Additionally, two equations were
derived to relate the TOF to the sample size.
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Figure 6. B-scan generated from the raw LIU signals for both faces in different media. Image taken from Rojas et al [32].
To achieve a more realistic evaluation, two experimental conditions were considered: a controlled
laboratory setup using a water tank, and an air-based configuration where coupling was provided through
gel. For each configuration, two B-scans were performed, Figure 6 presents the B-scans obtained from
each face of the plate; subsequently Figure 7 illustrates the combination of the two sides together with the
measurements derived from the proposed equations. The authors found a minimal variation between
0.41% and 5.72% (20–230 µm) in the measurements performed in water, and between 0.86% and 6.46%
(20–220 µm) in those performed in air. Moreover, the results demonstrate that it is possible to measure
the distance between the two slabs (kissing bond), which was approximately 49 µm in water and 29 µm
in air.
Figure 7. Reconstructed images generated from the combination of faces A and B shown in Figure 6. Image taken from Rojas
et al [32].
4.3 Photoacoustic tomography (PACT)
Photoacoustic computed tomography (PACT) differs fundamentally from other photoacoustic techniques
in its acquisition mode and its ability to achieve deeper penetration into biological samples. Its primary
objective has traditionally been the investigation of deep tissues, particularly in applications such as
vascular imaging, tumor detection, and implant monitoring. Similar to other branches of photoacoustic,
PACT has subsequently been adapted to NDT. Several methodologies have been developed to acquire
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data using this technique. The most common approach involves a circular arrangement of sensors,
enabling parallel acquisition in which information from all detectors is collected simultaneously. An
alternative method employs a single sensor aligned with the laser, combined with rotation of the sample
to obtain multiple projections [33- 35].
Nevertheless, both methodologies allow the creation of B-scan images directly from experimental data,
while solving the inverse problem could provide all that is needed for a complete image reconstruction.
Yet this does not always occur, since methods based on the inverse problem may introduce artifacts or
reduce contrast in the final image. To address this issue, dual illumination has been applied to metallic
cylinders, in their work, Moock et al [36] developed this methodology for the characterization of material
properties and compared the results with a simulation framework using the PATLAB toolbox.
Figure 8 shows the experimental arrangement of the dual illumination technique, which involves two
pulsed lasers, consequently, two transducers were also used. The study was conducted in water, which
served as the coupling medium. Five different metallic cylinders were used as specimens (aluminum,
brass, bronze, copper, and stainless steel), each with an inner diameter of 4 ± 0.01 mm and an outer
diameter of 24.91 ± 0.12 mm. For each specimen, the sound speed was determined experimentally.
Additionally, the detector positions were labeled as “north” (N), “east” (E), “south” (S), and “west” (W).
The signal obtained from this dual illumination setup presents the challenge that the direction of signal
propagation is not inherently linked to spatial coordinates. Therefore, a mathematical transformation was
employed, in which a forward signal, denoted as g, is interpreted in the backward direction. This process
involves generating a mirrored time sequence, denoted as g′, which is then registered within the same
temporal frame as the opposing signal. By aligning these two sequences, the system can effectively
synchronize the data acquired from different points of the circular array. This synchronization is achieved
through the Hadamard product (g
g′), which is defined as the element-wise multiplication of two vectors
or matrices of the same dimensions. This operation emphasizes points of intersection and coincidence
between sensors, thereby reducing noise and isolating the relevant acoustic data, by applying this
technique to various combinations of detector positions, all possible spatial interactions within the array
can be evaluated.
Figure 8. Schematic of the experimental setup, Image taken from Moock et al [36].
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As a result of the experimental arrangement, Figure 9 depicts two images reconstructed by following the
described methodology and employing the Delay-and-Sum (DAS) algorithm, the single-laser scan (left)
exhibits pronounced artifacts, whereas the dual-illumination approach (right) demonstrates superior
performance by mitigating such artifacts. Nonetheless, further signal enhancement is required to resolve
the internal structure of the hollow cylinder. A detailed analysis is presented in the referenced study with
the aim of quantifying this similarity, the results confirm that dual processing effectively reduces
randomness and uncertainty, thereby producing a cleaner image [36].
Figure 9. Primal (left) and dual (right) DAS reconstruction of the bronze cylinder, Image taken from Moock et al [36].
4.4 Photoacoustic Microscopy (PAM)
As portable technologies and battery-based energy storage systems have proliferated, new challenges have
emerged, particularly in the electric vehicle industry, since their batteries face demanding conditions such
as excessive temperatures and repeated charge-discharge cycles, these conditions can limit or reduce
battery longevity [37].
In Figure 10, the fundamental structure of batteries is shown, which consists of two electrodes in contact
with an electrolyte solution, these devices store electrical energy by the conversion of chemical energy
through redox reactions at the anode and cathode [38]. New types of batteries have been investigated to
address current challenges, these developments are based on various modifications, such as lithium-metal
batteries, in which the typical graphite anode is replaced with a more energy-dense lithium metal to
enhance energy storage. Nevertheless, microstructural failure mechanisms have generally been observed,
known in literature as dendrites, which arise from inhomogeneous deposition and stripping of electrode
metal during charge and discharge cycles, respectively [39,40]. Several NDT techniques can be used to
assess dendrite growth, such as scanning and transmission electron microscopy, but these require sample
preparation, making them unsuitable for rapid in situ observation, other techniques, such as X-ray
microscopy, are unsuitable because lithium has a low electron density [41].
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Figure 10. Fundamental battery composition. Image taken from Winter & Brodd [38].
Therefore, PAM was analyzed as a potential substitute for conventional NDT methods in batteries. Liu et
al [41] constructed a Li/Li symmetric cell with a liquid electrolyte, as depicted in Figure 11(a). The Li
electrodes exhibited a thickness of approximately 240 μm, while the electrolyte layer measured about 2
mm. To facilitate the experiment, one side of the cell was cut to obtain a flat sidewall (Figure 11(b)).
Subsequently, the cell was sealed within a stainless-steel coin cell case for the charging process (Figure
11(c)). Figure 11(d) illustrates the Li/Li cell before and after charging, where the current direction dictates
whether Li is stripped from or plated onto a given electrode. Finally, Figure 11(e) presents the cell voltage
as a function of elapsed time under five distinct charging current densities.
Figure 11. Li/Li cell used as a sample for dendrite growth. Image taken from Liu et al [41].
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After the charging process, the stainless-steel coin cell case was removed, and the cell was sealed in a
plastic bag filled with liquid to facilitate ultrasound coupling. In order to establish a comparison between
conventional techniques and PAM, an Optical Microscopy (OM) method was employed. Figure 12(a)
shows the sample holder, which contains markers on the top surface to aid in the comparison. Figures
12(b) and 12(c) highlight the contrast, which is more pronounced in the PAM image than in the OM image.
Figures 12(d) and 12(e) illustrate the depth of focus (DOF) achieved by both methods; once again, PAM
provides a superior DOF. These results reinforce the earlier observation that OM cannot directly visualize
dendrite growth and offers limited depth information. Finally, Figure 12(b) presents a complete three-
dimensional model reconstructed using PAM.
Figure 12. Li/Li cell analyzed by PAM and OM for dendrite growth. Image taken from Liu et al [41].
The cell configuration also enables the analysis of the electrolyte layer, which was fabricated using a GFS.
This analysis revealed that Li protrusions were deposited in an inhomogeneous pattern and progressively
increased as the charging current density was raised. It was found that PAM could penetrate up to 160
μm inside the GFS, whereas OM achieved a penetration depth of only 50 μm. This experimental
evidence positions PAM as a potential tool for the study of dendrites. Future research could extend this
approach to other types of battery cells, such as those employing sodium, magnesium, or zinc electrodes,
which, based on the present results, appear technically feasible [41].
4.5 Laser ultrasonic (LUT)
In laser ultrasonic testing (LUT), a pulsed laser is used to induce the PA effect within the thermoelastic
regime, thereby avoiding phenomena such as photodamage. Unlike other PPA techniques that used
piezoelectric sensors, LUT commonly employs vibrometers or even interferometric detection schemes
have been reported, such as a Fabry–Perot interferometer built with a continuous laser[42,43]. LUT has
been investigated in several industrial applications, for instance, it has been applied to detect inter and
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intralayer defects in additive manufacturing [44,45], in other cases, Finite Element Method (FEM)
simulations have been conducted to study its application in aero-engine blades, where surface fatigue
cracks frequently occur. Numerical results demonstrate that the surface acoustic waves induced by pulsed
lasers are highly sensitive to surface-breaking cracks [46] and LUT has also been applied to visualize and
characterize hidden notches in aluminum plates, achieving high spatial resolution [47].
Similar to the electric vehicle industry, the semiconductor industry is constantly searching for new
materials and methods to meet the demands of devices ranging from simple and inexpensive to highly
advanced. One of the key characteristics that determines whether a material is suitable for semiconductor
applications is its bandgap, defined as the energy difference (measured in electronvolts, eV) between the
Valence Band where electrons are strongly bound to atoms and the Conduction Band where electrons are
free to move and generate current [48, 49]. Silicon carbide (SiC) stands out among semiconductor
materials due to its wide bandgap, which enables a broad range of potential applications, as well as its
compatibility with complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) processes [50].
In the semiconductor industry, as in other manufacturing sectors, fabrication-related defects can be
mitigated but not entirely eliminated, therefore it remains essential to ensure and verify the absence of
microcracks, internal defects, and other flaws that could limit the useful life or compromise the
functionality of the material. Several techniques are employed to identify internal defects, such as the
potassium hydroxide (KOH) corrosion method, a traditional chemical approach used to reveal defects in
silicon carbide (SiC) crystals. This method, however, is destructive, as the dissolution process irreparably
damages the sample. Moreover, available techniques for detecting surface or subsurface defects are often
costly or require lengthy evaluation times [51,52].
As part of an exploratory investigation to implement LUT for the analysis of defects in SiC, Yin et al. [53]
proposed a numerical study to clarify the relationship between defect parameters and acoustic vibrations.
To this end, they developed a two-dimensional model in which the heat conduction equation is presented
in Equation (3). In this formulation q represents the external heat source, is the thermal conductivity,
is the temperature field as a function of time, is the material density, and is the specific heat capacity
per unit volume.
(3)
Equation (4) describes how the acoustic vibration displacement depends solely on the material parameters
and the temperature field [54]. is the first-order Lamé constant of the isotropic solid, is the second-
order Lamé constant, is the displacement vector, and is the coefficient of thermal expansion.
(4)
To apply the two-dimensional model developed, Figure 13 presents two configurations designed to study
the interaction of acoustic waves with surface and internal defects. For the superficial defect, the sample
has a width of 10 mm and a height of 5 mm, with a defect size of 0.1 × 0.05 mm. In the internal case, the
defect is modeled 0.05 mm below the surface, and the excitation point is positioned at ( −2, 0).
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Figure 13. Schematic diagram of a specimen with a surface defect (a) or an internal defect (b). Image taken from Yin et al
[53].
Through the analysis of numerical simulations, it is observed that the temperature at the excitation point
depends on the repetition rate of the laser, which can be adjusted to ensure the maximum surface
temperature of the material. Figure 14 shows the acoustic field distribution in SiC with a surface defect,
where the behavior of the different waves can be observed. The pressure wave (P) propagates most rapidly,
followed by the shear wave (S), while the Rayleigh wave (R) travels along the horizontal surface at a
direction angle of 0°, the propagation angle of the pressure wave is greater than that of the shear wave.
Figure 14(a) shows that when the P-wave reaches the defect, part of the wave is reflected (rP) while
another portion is transmitted through the defect (tP). Subsequently, some of the P-wave energy is
converted into a shear wave (PS) and a Rayleigh wave (PR), as if the impact at the crack edge generates
new wave modes. In Figure 14(b) the Rayleigh wave (R) carries the most energy and propagates along
the surface. Upon encountering the micro-defect, a reflected Rayleigh wave (rR) is formed, while most of
the R-wave energy is transmitted beneath the defect and continues its path (tR). Finally, a small fraction
of the Rayleigh wave is also converted into shear waves (RS) and pressure waves (RP), which continue
to propagate.
(a)
(b)
Figure 14. Acoustic field distribution of specimens with a surface defect at (a) t = 350 ns and (b) t = 700 ns. Image taken
from Yin et al[53].
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For the internal defect shown in Figure 15(a), most of the energy is transmitted (tR), flowing along both
the upper and lower surfaces of the defect, a small portion of the wave strikes the defect edge and is
reflected (rR). At the right corner of the defect, a mode transition occurs, generating a converted Rayleigh
wave (RSR). Additionally Figure 15(b) illustrates that this mode transition is more pronounced than in the
case of surface defects; here, the Rayleigh wave is partially converted into a shear wave (RS) and a
pressure wave (RP). In conclusion, the simulation results indicate that surface defect edges can be
identified by the abrupt increase in Rayleigh wave amplitude. However, when the defect depth exceeds
the Rayleigh wavelength, reflection (rR) nearly disappears and the transmitted wave remains unaffected.
In such cases, detection is only possible through pressure (P) and shear (S) waves, since the Rayleigh
wave ceases to interact with the defect [53].
(a)
(b)
Figure 15. Acoustic pressure field at (a) t = 550 ns and (b) t = 700 ns of a specimen with an internal defect. Image taken from
Yin et al [53].
4.6 Comparative synthesis of photoacoustic techniques for NDT/E
To synthesize the main findings discussed in the previous subsections, Table 2 presents a comparative
overview of the photoacoustic-based techniques analyzed in this review. The comparison emphasizes the
operational trade-offs among excitation source, detection strategy, contact requirements, defect scale,
penetration capability, main advantages, limitations, and representative NDT/E applications. This
synthesis highlights that no single technique is universally optimal; instead, the suitability of each
approach depends on the inspection scenario, material characteristics, defect geometry, required spatial
resolution, and industrial implementation constraints.
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Table 2. Comparative overview of photoacoustic based techniques for NDT/E.
Technique
Excitation
source
Detection
strategy
Contact
requireme
nt
Typical
defect scale
Penetration
capability
Main advantages
Main limitations
Representative
applications
CW-
modulated
PA
Modulated
continuous
-wave laser
or laser
diode
Piezoelectric
sensor or
optical
detection
Often
requires
sensor
coupling,
depending
on the
configurati
on
Surface and
near-surface
defects
Low to
moderate
Low cost, compact
setup, potential
portability
Lower SNR due to
limited optical power;
requires careful
modulation control
Crack detection in
rails and metallic
components
Pulsed
PAI /
LIUS
Pulsed
laser
Ultrasonic
transducer;
commonly
piezoelectric
detection
Usually
requires
acoustic
coupling
Internal
cavities,
kissing bonds,
subsurface
discontinuities
Moderate
High accuracy for
time-of-flight-based
sizing; suitable for B-
scan and C-scan
inspection
Coupling requirements;
image formation may
remain partial without
full reconstruction
Metallic plates,
internal cavities,
kissing bond
evaluation
PACT
Pulsed
laser
Sensor array
or rotating
detector
configuration
Usually
requires a
coupling
medium
Internal
defects and
volumetric
discontinuities
Moderate to
high
Tomographic
reconstruction
capability; useful for
internal defect
localization
Reconstruction artifacts;
computational cost;
expensive pulsed laser
sources
Hollow metallic
cylinders and internal
structure inspection
PAM
Focused
pulsed
laser
Focused
ultrasonic
detection
Depends
on the
configurati
on;
coupling is
often
required
Microdefects,
dendrites,
microscale
discontinuities
Low
Very high spatial
resolution; suitable
for microstructural
inspection
Limited penetration
depth; slow scanning for
large areas
Battery materials,
dendrite growth,
microscale inspection
LUT
Pulsed
laser
Optical
interferometry
, laser
vibrometry, or
Fabry–Perot
detection
Fully non-
contact in
typical
configurati
ons
Surface
cracks,
subsurface
flaws,
porosity, lack-
of-fusion
defects
Moderate
Suitable for harsh
environments,
complex geometries,
moving parts, and
materials where
couplants are
undesirable
Sensitive to surface
roughness; higher system
cost; signal processing
requirements
Additive
manufacturing, SiC
inspection, CMCs,
aerospace and energy
components
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As summarized in Table 2, CW-modulated PA offers the most accessible and potentially portable
configuration, but its performance is commonly limited by SNR constraints. Pulsed PAI and LIUS provide
accurate defect sizing through time-of-flight analysis, although they often require acoustic coupling.
PACT extends the inspection capability toward tomographic reconstruction of internal structures, but at
the cost of more demanding reconstruction algorithms and possible artifacts. PAM provides the highest
spatial resolution among the techniques reviewed, making it suitable for microscale inspection, although
its limited penetration depth restricts large-volume applications. In contrast, LUT offers the most favorable
conditions for fully non-contact industrial inspection, particularly in scenarios involving complex
geometries or materials where couplants are not acceptable.
5. Conclusions and Outlook
Overall, the different branches of PPA reveal, a clear technological difference between spatial resolution,
penetration depth, and industrial viability. While techniques such as PAM and PACT address specific
needs in micro-defect detection and volumetric reconstruction, their limitations in scalability and cost
remain significant. In this context, for continuous and cost-effective monitoring, modulated PA employing
CW lasers has been proposed as a highly accessible alternative that substantially reduces equipment costs
[55]. Moreover, this continuous wave technology has been successfully integrated as an excitation source
for the LUT technique [56], which has been distinguished as a robust methodology, offering remarkable
versatility for inspections where conventional techniques fall; nevertheless, its effectiveness has been
shown to depend strongly on the surface roughness of the analyzed material.
Despite these operational differences, the technical challenges associated with resolving complex internal
structures are frequently shared across these disciplines. For instance, PACT methodologies applied to
highly scattering and layered media, such as dental anatomy [57], have demonstrated that the
implementation of targeted bandpass filtering can significantly optimize the acquired signal, resulting in
a notable increase in lateral resolution [58]. In addition, the computational burden inherent in image
generation has been effectively mitigated through the adoption of parallel computing techniques and finite
element analysis methods (FEM) [59]. These advances in signal processing and computation, although
initially validated in biological hard tissues, can be directly extrapolated to industrial Non-Destructive
Testing (NDT), thereby accelerating and refining defect visualization.
In contrast, Laser Ultrasonic Testing (LUT) has consistently demonstrated a comparative advantage in
real-world application where traditional contact methods are impractical. In the field of metal additive
manufacturing, for example, LUT has proven highly effective in detecting complex defects such as lack
of fusion between printed layers, micro-cracks, and internal porosities [60]. Similarly, in critical sectors
such as aerospace and energy, the inspection of Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) has posed a unique
physical challenge. Owing to the inherent porosity of these materials, the liquid couplants required by
conventional ultrasonic techniques would irreparably contaminate the sample; consequently, the fully
non-contact nature of LUT has been regarded as a technically superior alternative [61]. To address its own
limitations, recent investigations have focused on expanding the capabilities of LUT to achieve high-
precision measurements even on rough or structurally imperfect surfaces [62].
Overall the photoacoustic effect possesses a wide range of applications, although it has achieved
remarkable development in the biomedical field, its use for solving inspection problems in solid materials
is becoming increasingly common. Much of its versatility lies in the ability to measure defects with high
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precision, covering a scale that ranges from millimetric imperfections to micrometric discontinuities.
While penetration depth in solids remains a challenge for certain applications, the photoacoustic technique
clearly surpasses many conventional technologies that prove ineffective in the presence of sample
porosity, require strictly non-contact inspections, or are limited exclusively to ferromagnetic materials.
The second major challenge for the widespread adoption of photoacoustic techniques is the high cost of
traditional pulsed lasers. Nevertheless, the use of pulsed laser diodes has emerged as a viable solution that,
in addition to drastically reducing equipment investment, will facilitate the implementation of these tools
in complex industrial environments, albeit with certain technical limitations. The integration of these
excitation sources with interferometers points to a clear direction toward the future development of real-
time applications for manufacturing process monitoring.
The third persistent challenge lies in image reconstruction through algorithms, which currently demand
prohibitive computational costs and long processing times, or produce low-resolution images with the
presence of artifacts. Overcoming these algorithmic barriers will be key to the development of robust in
situ inspection systems capable of generating high-fidelity defect maps in a fraction of the current time.
By resolving these mathematical limitations, photoacoustic technology will not only expand its own
horizons but will also consolidate itself as an invaluable complement to traditional and current Non-
Destructive Testing techniques.
6. Acknowledgment
JMDD acknowledges support from SECIHTI through the Doctoral Scholarship. LFEH and OMMC
acknowledge support from SECIHTI (Secretaría de Ciencias, Humanidades, Tecnología e Innovación)
through postdoctoral grants: Estancias Posdoctorales por México para la Formación y Consolidación de
las y los Investigadores por México. FJGR acknowledges support from TecNM through the sabbatical
stay AS-2-186/2025 and from PRODEP through the program Apoyos para el Fortalecimiento de Cuerpos
Academicos MOO/3070/2025. This research was partially supported by SECIHTI (Grant No. CBF2023-
2024-3038) and was also partially supported by DAIP-Universidad de Guanajuato: CIIC (Grant No.
401/2025).
Authorship acknowledgment
All authors contributed equally to the conception, development, and writing of this work. Each author
participated in the research, analysis, and preparation of the manuscript, and all share equal
responsibility for its content.
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Derechos de Autor (c) 2026 José Mario Derramadero-Domínguez, Lenin Francisco Escamilla-Herrera, Orlando Miguel Medina-Cazares,
Salvador Manuel Malagón-Soldara, Gerardo Gutiérrez-Juárez, Francisco Javier García-Rodríguez
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