Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT). Volumen 3 (1): 10-22

Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT). Universidad Autónoma de Baja California ISSN 2594-1925

Volumen 6 (2): e247. Abril-Junio, 2023. https://doi.org/10.37636/recit.v6n2e247

ISSN: 2594-1925

Review

Polysaccharide evaluation in flocculation mediated via

polyelectrolyte complex

Evaluación de polisacáridos en floculación mediada por complejo

polielectrolítico

Mercedes Teresita Oropeza-Guzmán1, Fernanda Araiza-Verduzco2*

1Tecnológico Nacional de México/I. T. Tijuana. Centro de Graduados e Investigación en Química-Grupo de Biomateriales y

Nanomedicina, Blvd. Alberto Limón Padilla S/N, 22510 Tijuana, BC, México.

2Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Campus Tijuana, Calzada Universidad 14418, 22390

Tijuana, BC, México

Autor de correspondencia: Fernanda Araiza-Verduzco, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Campus Tijuana, Calzada

Universidad 14418, 22390 Tijuana, BC, México. E-mail: maria.araiza18@uabc.edu.mx. ORCID: 0000-0003-2426-7896.

Received: March 6, 2023 Accepted: May 13, 2023 Published: May 28, 2023

Abstract. - Water is an increasingly valuable resource because its availability, primarily it is limited to precipitation and water

storage; for that reason, increasing population density and climate change can interfere with water accessibility. Urban and

industrial activities can produce wastewater and pollute waterbodies that could represent a significant water source; however,

it needs to be treated prior to its use. Flocculation is an important pollutants removal method to reduce a variety of organic

and inorganic molecules from wastewater, using the flocculant’s intrinsic charges to stabilize/precipitate them, by different

methods, one of them being via polyelectrolyte complex. Flocculant versatility depends on its capacity to remove pollutants

and there are commercial flocculants with remarkable efficiencies. However, their toxicity can limit their use in waterbodies

or for former human use. Research shows that polysaccharides are great option as flocculants because of their easily charged

conformation and high molecular weight to neutralize pollutants and precipitate flocs, they are biocompatible, biodegradable,

and easy to modify to modulate the flocculant interaction due to the functional group’s high density. This review explores the

latest research on polysaccharide polyelectrolyte flocculation and derivatives and their pollutant removal capacity, the

polysaccharides evaluated were the most commonly researched such as chitosan, cellulose, chitin, alginate, gums, dextran,

among others. Recent research tendencies on these polysaccharides flocculation capacity, showed promising results (up to

99% removal efficiencies) with a wide variety of contaminants, making them excellent candidates for their application in green

flocculation.

Keywords: Polysaccharide; Flocculation; Polyelectrolyte complex; Water treatment.

Resumen. - El agua es un recurso cada vez más valioso porque su disponibilidad, principalmente, se limita a la precipitación

y al almacenamiento de agua; por esa razón, el aumento de la densidad de población y el cambio climático pueden interferir

con la accesibilidad al agua. Las actividades urbanas e industriales pueden producir aguas residuales y contaminar cuerpos

de agua que podrían representar una fuente importante de agua; sin embargo, necesita ser tratado antes de su uso. La

floculación es un importante método de eliminación de contaminantes para reducir una variedad de moléculas orgánicas e

inorgánicas de las aguas residuales, utilizando las cargas intrínsecas del floculante para estabilizarlas/precipitarlas, por

diferentes métodos, uno de ellos a través de un complejo polielectrolítico. La versatilidad de los floculantes depende de su

capacidad para remover contaminantes y existen floculantes comerciales con eficiencias notables. Sin embargo, su toxicidad

puede limitar su uso en cuerpos de agua o para uso humano anterior. Las investigaciones muestran que los polisacáridos son

excelentes opciones como floculantes debido a su conformación de fácil carga y alto peso molecular para neutralizar

contaminantes y precipitar flóculos, son biocompatibles, biodegradables y fáciles de modificar para modular la interacción

floculante debido a la alta densidad del grupo funcional. Esta revisión explora las últimas investigaciones sobre la floculación

de polielectrolitos de polisacáridos y sus derivados y su capacidad de remoción de contaminantes, los polisacáridos evaluados

fueron los más investigados como quitosano, celulosa, quitina, alginato, gomas, dextrano, entre otros. Las tendencias de

investigación recientes sobre la capacidad de floculación de estos polisacáridos mostraron resultados prometedores (hasta un

99% de eficiencia de remoción) con una amplia variedad de contaminantes, lo que los convierte en excelentes candidatos para

su aplicación en la floculación verde.

Palabras clave: Polisacárido; Floculación; Complejo de polielectrolito; Tratamiento de aguas.

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1. Introducción

Wastewater is utilized water after being affected

by domestic, industrial, and commercial use or

polluted by any foreign component. The

composition of all wastewater is highly variable

due to the different contamination sources, which

is why it is so difficult to pinpoint a singular way

of pollutant removal [1]. The impact of polluted

water is 

ecosystems as well as its availability for human

use [2]. Increasing population and climate

change statistics show there is a growing concern

about the water crisis that makes water treatment

a priority to treat and reuse as effectively and

optimized as possible [3]. There are many

wastewater treatment technologies used that

overall and overlapped can be somewhat

effective in the removal process [4].

Flocculation is a process by which colloidal

particles come out of suspension to sediment

under the form of a floc. Before the actual

flocculation process, particles are merely

suspended and are not truly dissolved in solution,

under the form of a stable colloidal dispersion

and will not present natural precipitation [5]. On

the other hand, coagulation aims to destabilize

and aggregate particles through chemical

interactions between the coagulant and colloids,

and flocculation to sediment the destabilized

particles by causing their aggregation into flocs

for precipitation [6].

2. PE flocculation

The stability of a colloid is related to its zeta

potential, which involves the particle surface

charges and an oppositely charged counter ions

adjacent to it, which attracts and stabilize,

forming an electrical double layer, these opposite

charges systems are called polyelectrolytes (PE)

[7]. PEs have remained one of the most attractive

resources of scientific research, in recent decades

owing to their great importance in advanced

technologies and biological applications [8]. A

PE is defined as any macromolecular material

that has repeating units and dissociates into a

highly charged polymeric molecule upon being

placed in any ionizing solvent (e.g., H2O),

forming either a positively or negatively charged

polymeric chain [9].

A PE is characterized by its molecular weight,

the nature of the functional group, and the charge

density [10]. An important consideration in

choosing a PE for a desired process is its

potential as a coagulant (by destabilization of the

colloid via neutralization) and as a flocculant (by

interparticle bridging or charge neutralization).

Overall, the charge neutralization principle is the

main concept in PE systems. However, the

polymeric nature (either in its native state or

grafted derivatives) will define the floc formation

mechanism, depicted in Figure 1A [11]. Mainly,

a PE formed by charge neutralization in a native,

linear modality will be dependent on charge

accessibility due to steric issues and on the other

hand, bridging is charge neutralization by

charges present in grafted polymers or branched

nature, that can provide greater accessibility to

the neutralization process and provide better

yields [12].

Hence, flocculation takes place through

hydrophobic or hydrophilic interactions (mainly

hydrogen bonds or electrostatic interactions), and

any compression of the double layer, can be

induced by increasing the ionic strength, which

should enhance stabilization by allowing closer

particle approach and as the flocculant adsorbs



the whole area of the colloidal particles.

Flocculation takes place through hydrophobic or

hydrogen bonds, and any compression of the

double layer that can be induced by increases in

ionic strength should enhance bridging by

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allowing closer particle approach interactions,

leading to increased stability [13].

The repeating unit charge of the PE polymers, is

neutralized by oppositely charged smaller

counter ions that tend to preserve the electro

neutrality, this principle will confer electrostatic

interaction with pollutants charge dependent for

the removal capability. If any PE solution

contains a positively charged electrolyte, it

would interact with negatively charged ions, and

similarly, negatively charged materials with

positively charged ions [14]. This principle also

works in amphoteric polymers with the added

benefit of interacting with both positive and

negative particles and strengthening the PE with

interactions polymerparticle and polymer-

polymer joined by electrostatic attraction and can

confer the flocculant with great diversity, [15] as

can be observed in Figure 1B.

Figure 1. PE floc forming mechanisms. A. Particle neutralization methods dependent of polymer configuration. B. Particle

neutralization methods dependent of polymer charge.

The pH is also an important parameter to be

considered when selecting a PE for a particular

application [11]. Usually, sensitivity to pH

occurs with cationic polymers in which

quaternary ammonium groups are dominant, and

with anionic polymers containing hydroxyl or

carboxylate groups. Flocculants with high

carboxyl or amine groups density and availability

confer stronger pH dependence and will define

its efficiency [16].

Flocculation requires gentle mixing and the use

of a high molecular weight polymeric flocculant

[17]. The flocculant adsorbs to the small flocs

and facilitates the bridging of gaps between flocs,

bringing particles closer together, which creates

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the effective range for Van Der Waals attraction

forces to reduce the energy barrier for

flocculation and form loosely packed flocs.

Subsequently, aggregation, binding, and

strengthening of flocs occur until visibly

suspended bigger flocs form, which usually

precipitates in such a state [18].

By concept, PE flocculation is very effective but

it can present some challenges. First, it generates

sludge that can represent a separation,

elimination, and disposition problem, [19] and

second, flocculant traces remain in the treated

water [20] and commercial flocculants are

reported to be toxic, [21] which can make treated

water discharge problematic without disrupting

the ecosystem or contaminating water for human

use [22]. A possible solution to avoid toxic

flocculant traces and sludge toxicity, is using

biodegradable, biocompatible polymers as

flocculants, such as polysaccharides and their

derivatives.

Polysaccharides are biocompatible,

biodegradable natural polymers formed of

monosaccharide units that are joined together by

glycosidic linkages [23]. In its disposition, they

can be linear, branched structures or linear

structures with short branches regularly spaced,

irregularly spaced, or in clusters [24].

Some important polysaccharides are chitosan,

alginate, chitin, cellulose, various gums,

carrageenan, chondroitin sulfate, pullulan,

starch, among many others (Figure 2); [25] each

one, shares the glycosidic link between different

sugar rings, but in the sugar diversity and

interaction lies their differences and properties.

Usually, polysaccharides classify according to

their charge due to different sugar atoms that

confer partial charges in neutral environments

because of their functional groups, which can

rule their environmental interaction and, in

consequence, the interaction with molecules

aiming to remove, [26] e.g. amine groups in

chitosan confer a positive charge at a neutral pH

(ca 7) and hydroxyl groups or carboxylate groups

confer a negative charge, each of them,

complexing with their corresponding particles

with neutralizing charges, producing the

flocculation process [27].

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Figure 2. Important polysaccharide structures and charge classification

As mentioned before, the PE capacity and

strength depends on charge availability and

distribution, molecular weight and graft o

branching conformation to allow the bridging

process. However, the charge can be induced or

modified by modifying the polymer native chain.

For example, there are some anionic

polysaccharide derivatives (not in the native

state), that can be recognized as cationic, which

can be induced by adding a quaternary nitrogen

or a free amine group to the polysaccharide chain

[28]. A wide variety of grafts have been used in

polysaccharides, aiming to modulate the polymer

charge and in consequence, its affinity to a

targeted pollutant (Table 1).

Table 1. Different grafts functionalized on to

polysaccharides

Graft charge

Reactive used

Cationic grafts

3-chlorohydroxypropyl-trimethylammonium

chloride

Acrylamide

Azobisisobutamidine hydrochloride

Methacryloxyethyl trimethyl ammonium chloride

Acryloyloxyethyltrimethylammonium chloride

Dimethyl diallyl ammonium chloride

[2-(methacryloyloxy) ethyl] trimethyl ammonium

chloride

Amino thiourea

Anionic grafts

Monochloroacetic acid

Itaconic acid

2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid

Sodium xanthate

Starch

Dextran

Ammonium dithiocarbamate

Sodium silicate

Neutral grafts

Polyacrylpiperidine

Poly(N-vinylcaprolactam)

Cinnamic acid

Dodecylamine

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3. PE flocculation by cationic

polysaccharides

Positively charged polymers can be used for PE

flocculation and are widely used for this

application. Small particles, as well as cells, carry

negative surface charges that hinder aggregation

and settling [29], so high weight cationic

polymeric particles can act as effective

flocculants. Usually, nitrogen groups are

responsible for a positive charge conferred to a

molecule, therefor chitosan (CS) is one of the few

native polysaccharides with the capacity to

exhibit a positive charge, even though its pH

dependent.

CS is a linear polysaccharide composed of

  --linked D-

glucosamine (conferring the positive charge) and

N-acetyl-D-glucosamine [30]. CS is obtained

from the exoskeleton of crustaceans and has

attracted widespread attention due to abundant

resources, low cost, and availability [31].

Another appealing remark is its unique structure

and the diversity of active groups within the

molecule, which has good environmental

compatibility and modification reproducibility

[32]. It is a natural basic polysaccharide, and the

molecular segment contains a large number of

active functional groups such as the amine group,

hydroxyl group, and N-acetyl group, which have

strong physical or chemical adsorption capacity

for a variety of pollutants such as heavy metal

ions, dyes or biological agents to mention some

[33]. In addition, CS has been reported to be

ecofriendly [34], biodegradable [35], good

chelation behavior [36] and non-toxic [37].

However, due to the solubility of chitosan in acid

conditions, its application in wastewater

treatment can be complicated in standard

conditions or a pure state. For these reasons,

better results have been reported in acidic

working condition [38].

The PE flocculation mechanism is mainly thru





flocculation process occurs [39], even more so if

these groups are used to functionalize it with

more active versatile molecules solving the

solubility issue mentioned before, and increasing

the flocculation efficiency [40]. CS is one of the

most used natural polymers because of its amine

group, facile functionalization in mild conditions

and biocompatibility, making the flocculation

process green and environmentally friendly [41].

CS has been reported to remove a wide variety of

pollutants [42], some of them are inorganic

compounds and suspended solids, such as kaolin

or clay, removed by the complexation their

negative charge with CS protonated amine



acidic pH, which makes CS and CS based

materials effective for waterbodies flocculation

[43]. CS has also been reported to remove

organic compounds exploiting its hydrophobic

nature at neutral pHs such as antibiotics [44] and

dyes [45]. For example, acrylamide is a very

common positive charged graft functionalized

onto CS to provide property, specifically

because, it maintains the cationic characteristic

adding a larger chain to enhance the bridging

capability.

Even though, the PE flocculation process is fairly

simple, the reality and practice of it, is a complex

process due to the wide variety of pollutant

scenarios, and to make the polysaccharide used

multifunctional and more efficient, they are

grafted with complementary opposite charges

producing a zwitterionic polymeric chain and

providing diverse anchoring points that, as

mentioned before, can neutralize the particle, to

remove it and also stabilize itself to promote a

more, efficient, fast, and versatile flocculation

[46]. The amphiphilic properties can be induced

in cationic or anionic polymers depending on the

graft added, this can modulate the range of

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particles the flocculant can remove as well as the

pH window [47].

To accomplish this, CS has also been modified

with carboxylate and ammonium groups, this

confers a negative and positive charge at a neutral

pH range, which would not be possible with

native CS [48]. To continue with the example

given above, CS-acrylamide can be further

modified with an anionic graft to confer this

amphoteric property. There are several CS

evaluations with this pattern, e. g. CS-acrylamide

was modified with itaconic acid to remove

crystal violet and clay with up with great removal

efficiencies [49], or with sulfonate groups to

remove dissolved and natural organic matter

(DOM and NOM) with up to 95% efficiency

[50], or with sodium xanthate to remove Cr and

Ni with up to 99% removal efficiencies [51].

Monochloroacetic acid is used to produce

carboxymethyl CS, it is commonly used because

it works as an anionic graft, and has been used to

remove turbidity [52] or oil [53]. A wide variety

of grafts have been used, searching these

multifunctional properties, some of them with

remarkable results, exhibited in table 2.

Chitin (CH) is a long-chain polymer of N-

    

abundant polysaccharide in nature (behind only

cellulose) [54]. CH has a nitrogen in the

acetylamine group of the glucosamine, this can

confer a positive charge to the polysaccharide

structure. However, this cationic nature is limited

to a very acidic pH (ca. 2) [55], which limits the

interaction with negative charge pollutants in a

native state. There are reports of CH used as a

flocculant in suspended solid removal with

efficiency up to 85% [56] or ciprofloxacin with

up to 95% removal efficiency [57].

Table 2. Recent results (2019-2023) in studies about

     

common pollutants. Note: Turbidity results include TSS,

clay and kaolin.

Polysaccharide

Pollutant

removed

Optimal removal

efficiency Reference

Dye

81%,49 97%,58

98.7%,59 91.9%60

Turbidity

95.8%,52 90%61,

91.1%,62 95%,63

93%49

Orthophosphate

93.4%,52

Organic matter

95%50

Heavy metals

(Ni, Cr, Pb, Cd,

Cu)

94.7%,51 99.3%,51

95.2%,64 95.7%,64

83.9%,65 93.3%66

90.2%58

Oil

91%,67

Antibiotics

84.7%,44

COD

83.9%,65 97%62

Drugs

95%,68

Algae

90%,69 99%,70

99.3%71

Chlorophyl a

97%62

Antibiotics

95.5%57

Turbidity

95%,72 94%73

Heavy metals

(Pb, Cu, Cr)

92.3%,74 96%,75

97.2%,76 90%,77

80%77

Humic acid

95.1%,74

Turbidity

97.6%,78 90%,79

95%,80 90%81

Dye

98.4%,78 73.5%82

89.8%83

Bisphenol A

88.6%76

Xanthan gum

Iron Oxide

98%84

Turbidity

96.5%85

Dye

93.8%,86 99.7%,87

99%88

Guar gum

Turbidity

80%,89 90%90

Fenugreek gum

Arsenicals

90%91

Turbidity

92.7%,92 88.1%93

95.9%94

Dextran

Turbidity

96%,95 98.2%96

Cellulose

Dye

91.76%,97 87.5%98

99%,99 80%100

Algae

95%,101

Turbidity

99.8%,102

99.7%103

Starch

Heavy metals

(Ni, Cu

90%,104 99.2%105

Turbidity

92.7%,106

95.4%107

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4. PE flocculation by anionic

polysaccharides

Anionic polysaccharides are the most common

due to the functional groups in their structures.

As mentioned before, hydroxyl, carboxylates,

and sulfate groups confer negative charge and,

however pH dependent, these are the most

common functional groups in polysaccharides.

Therefore, the vast majority of polysaccharides

are anionic in nature [26]. Anionic

polysaccharides are even more widely researched

due to multiple reactive functional groups, which

can facilitate the modification of the polymeric





flocculating property, but using its PE nature it

can improve, e.g. with calcium ions can remove

up to 40% suspended solids [108], or with CS to

remove up to 100% turbidity and 90% COD

[109]. As mentioned before, the charge

neutralization in the PE process is key to the

flocculation to occur, however, small

counterions, such as calcium, would ionically

crosslink AG more tightly with less space for

particle removal; however, it can leave space for

particle adhesion and improves the removal

process due to surface interaction [110]. AG can

also be modified to induce an amphiphilic

properties, ca. using 3-chloro-2-

hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chloride,

modified AG containing both cationic groups 

N+(CH3)3 joined with the anionic groups COO-

from the native state will be obtained and can

hold positive and negative charges, this was

evaluated in its capacity to remove positive and

negative charged particles (Pb2+ and humic acid)

with removals up to 95% [74]. These amphiphilic

flocculants exhibit the potential to flocculate

both organic and inorganic pollutants and,

because of the PE condition of charges, reduce

the flocculant dosage to achieve removal

efficiencies close total removal. AG has also

been grafted with acrylamide as a co-polymer

system to develop this ability and increase floc

viscosity [111, 112, 113], with protamine to

remove quartz sand and kaolin [80], or with

amino thiourea to remove heavy metals [75]. For

that reason, we can determine AG as a versatile

flocculant when functionalized, especially with

opposite charge grafts, this would confer

diversity in its removal efficiency, that,

     

have availability to neutralize pollutants.

Gums are naturally occurring polysaccharides

with a lot of hydroxyls that can form hydrogen

bonds, this confers a high viscosity or solid state

at room temperature [114]. This property gives

extra functionality to the material. However,

there are many different gums, such as cashew,

xanthan, gellan, and fenugreek gum, among

many others [89]. In gums, the isoelectric point,

hence the working pH, is very important to

ensure charge interaction. In the flocculation

process, gums have been used in a native state or

conjugated to achieve better results, as it

represents an anionic polymer. Namely, xanthan

gum was used in a native state to remove iron

oxide using the combined isoelectric points,

achieving a flocculation efficiency of up to 98%

with a work pH window of 2-9 [84]. In this

regard, guar gums have been used in the native

state as well to remove a variety of pollutants

such as kaolinite [89], Pb2+ [115], bentonite [116]

among others. Gums used in a native state

represent a green flocculation and can help

flocculate a certain type of pollutant. As some

examples in the native state, xanthan gum was

used to remove kaolinite and calcium carbonate

with 95 and 76% efficiency, respectively [85],

guar gum to remove the oil with up to 90%

efficiency [117], or fenugreek gum to remove

suspended solids with efficiency [93, 118], and

COD [119]. However, gums can also be modified

special to provide bridging capacity of

amphiphilic properties, e.g. guar gum has been

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modified with itaconic acid to remove kaolin and

coal with 88 and 81% efficiency respectively,

this is an anionic graft that would increase the

negative charges surface, improve bridging

capacity and, consequently, increase its

interaction with the particles to remove [120]. On

the other hand, gums can be modified by the

amide groups, to increase the flocculation

properties manly because of charge availability,

diversity, and working pH and can be modulated

with the flocculant dosage not explored in this

review. One common example, as used with

other polysaccharides, acrylamide was use to

modified fenugreek gum [94], tamarind seed

gum [121], ghatti gum [122], cashew gum [123]

to mention some that were used as a way to

remove kaolin or dye with promising results.

    -1,6 glycosidic

linkages between glucose monomers, with

-1,3 linkages. Therefore, it has a

branched structure that provides a good charge

surface and spaces for particle interaction

(bridging), which makes an excellent

characteristic for flocculation [124]. Still, it is

used grafted to improve particle interaction, e.g.

grafted with acrylamide to remove turbidity with

efficiency up to 96% [125], with ammonium

groups to explore the PE amphoteric nature to

remove both inorganic or organic contaminants

with remarkable results [126], or even in a star-

like arrangement to remove kaolinite with up to

90% efficiency [127].

Cellulose (CL) is a polysaccharide consisting of

a linear chain of several hundred to various

-glucose units and

the main structural component of green plants

and algae, making it the most abundant

polysaccharide [128]. Because of its broad

availability, renewability, sustainability, and

surface modification potential, cellulose is

regarded as one important polymer for flocculant

production and modification, however, its

limitation lays on its solubility, that restricts the

ability to use it in a native state [129]. CL has also

been modified to obtain carboxymethyl and

acrylamide CL to remove dye [99], bivalent

metals [130], with ammonium groups to remove

turbidity with up to 99% efficiency [102], or with

citric acid to remove dyes or oil with up to 87%

efficiency [131].

Starch (ST) consist of numerous glucose units

joined by glycosidic bonds. It consists of two

types of molecules: linear and helical amylose

and branched amylopectin [132]. On its own, ST

has a low flocculation power, but despite of that,

grafted, it can potentiate its ability to remove

    

amphiphilic capability, it has been grafted with

polyacrylamide, and ammonium groups to

remove kaolin and sodium humate up to a 95 and

99% efficiency [133], with acrylic acid to remove

bivalent metals with up to 90% efficiency [104],

or triazine to remove dyes in highly saline

effluents because of its high pH sensitivity and

capability to be reused 3 times and continue

exhibiting flocculation capability with

efficiencies up to 85% [134]. This last capability

is a very rare property to be evaluated in

polysaccharides giving a whole new spectrum to

study on these materials, that can save resources

and increase cost-benefit characteristics.

In general, polysaccharides are greatly versatile

polymers that, as shown in table 2 can be very

effective against a variety of pollutants and are

widely used in the flocculation process, even

more so in a coordinated PE complex system.

Most of the anionic state polymers coincide in

charge, functional groups, reactivity, and

solubility, yet the abundance in usage depends a

lot on availability and costs. For instance,

hyaluronic acid [135], pullulans [136], or

chondroitin sulfate [137] are less available and

more expensive so there is a gap found in

research and interest in using these as flocculants,

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Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT). Volumen 6 (2): e247

however efficient they may be [138]. On the

other hand, sulfated carrageenan (CG) [139] and

agar (AR) [140] are more commonly used as

emulsifiers than flocculants due to their high

gelling and thickening capabilities, there for,

most of the research focuses on these

applications. Mostly, polysaccharide cost

depends on availability, for example, CL is the

most abundant polysaccharide in the planet,

      

the most viable and cost effective resources for

high scale flocculation applications [141].

5. Conclusion

Flocculation by polysaccharide-based PE is very

versatile, mainly because of the polymer

diversity and the almost infinite possibilities of

combinations that can be achieved and studied

with the native charges plus the grafted charges

to obtain stable potential (either positive,

negative, or both) to remove a variety of

contaminants (heavy metal, COD, suspended

solids such as kaolin or clay, dyes, and organic

molecules or particles) with removal efficiencies

from 80 to 99% which represent remarkable

results

is directly affected by the grafted group and the

charge density considering the diverse

polysaccharide-graft options since they are very

versatile flocculants for diverse pollutants

removal. However, the operational challenge is



dependency, and the affinity to ions that can

interfere with their removal power, thus making

it hard to apply in large scale, there for, there is a

gap of opportunity to research scalability and

efficiency in real, in situ situations. The research

tendency reveals that adding to the degradability

and biocompatibility of polysaccharides-based

flocculants, they can offer efficient flocculation

processes without toxic flocculant traces

remaining or toxic mud formed. In other words,

they represent excellent candidates for safer

wastewater or bodies of water low cost and

efficient treatment without the inorganic

flocculant complications.

6. Authorship acknowledgements

Mercedes Teresita Oropeza-Guzman:

Conceptualización. Fernanda Araiza-Verduzco:

Análisis formal; Investigación; Borrador

original; Escritura; Revisión y Edición.

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